Doing Theology from Below
Introduction
“Tell me and I forget, teach me and I may remember, involve me and I learn” - Benjamin Franklin
I am an electrical designer, preparing the electrical circuitry for fire halls, schools and offices and supervising the installation. But I also teach the theology of work in churches, conferences and seminaries. I have studied both theology from above and from below. My preference is for the latter. Let me explain why.
The term "Theology" comes from two Greek words. "Theo" means God, and "Logos" means knowledge. Studying theology is an activity of learning about the knowledge of God, as English Puritan William Perkins, who in the sixteenth century defined theology simply and sublimely as “the science of living blessedly forever.”[1] This Puritan definition suggests that Christian living is a theological expression and theology should deal with life. It also suggests that God can be known in life, sometimes designated as spirituality. As a Chinese theologian, Cavin Yu opines, “I am more deeply convinced that theology is not a profound and far-reaching study but a practice of godly life. Its purpose is to bring people closer to the heart of God.”[2] However, in the Western theological tradition, theology seems to be exclusively restricted to intellectual activity which has little to do with everyday life, so compartmentalized has become the discipline of theology.
Quite often, in most theological institutions, a theological education specializes in systematic, spiritual, historical, and practical theology, each in their own silo. Nevertheless, some Western Theologians have shown concern about the divorce between different disciplines within theological education. As J. I. Packer argues, "I want to arrange a marriage. I want our systematic theology to be practiced as an element in our spirituality, and I want our spirituality to be viewed as an implication and expression of our systematic theology, just as ethics is already viewed, at least by the discerning." [3] This marriage is about the reunion of orthodoxy, orthopathy—godly passion, and orthopraxy—godly practice. The traditional Western way of constructing theology, starting from God's revelation, is largely abstract, rationalistic, and dualistic, both metaphysically (for example, spiritual-material) and epistemologically (subject-object).[4] This approach is called “doing theology from above.” Without minimizing the value of theology that starts with the revelation of God and God’s purposes, there is another way of constructing theology: “doing theology from below.” This approach starts with life and concrete experiences in the workplace and the church. It is that approach which I am anxious to develop.
In fact this “from below” approach appeals more to the Eastern thinking model, which is concrete, holistic, and non-dualistic.[5] Rather than starting with abstract concepts or doctrines, doing theology from below begins with the concrete realities of people's lives and then proceeds with exploring the purposes of God in that situation, all of which might lead to experiencing God. So in this essay we will, first, examine and evaluate the method of doing theology from above. Second, we will delimitate what is doing theology from below. Finally, we will introduce a new method of doing theological reflection, which is the case study method for doing theological reflection from below in everyday life.
What is "Doing Theology “From Above"?
Needless to say, this is the most common approach to learning theology in the Western world. The primary sources of theology are from above. Broadly speaking, the Christian tradition recognizes four main sources: 1. The Bible, 2. Reason, 3. Tradition, 4. Experience.[6] Theological education is an attempt to integrate these resources in the process of equipping theological students. As we will see these four resources will have priority in doing theology from below but, significantly, with a different starting point.[7] Most seminaries and Bible colleges adopt this top-down approach, starting with the revelation of God, the Bible. Millard Erickson defines the theological task as follows:
Theology is the human effort to analyze, study, and interpret the true revelation of God in the Bible and organize it into a system of complete beliefs, and in contemporary culture, using contemporary language and thought patterns to enlighten God. The truth is expressed and spread.[8]
This top-down method emphasizes the intellectual capability and the priority of God's revelation during the theological construction; therefore, Erickson also suggests the following steps in constructing theology:
Step 1. Collection of the Bible Materials
Step 2. Unification of the Bible Materials
Step 3. Analysis of the Meaning of Biblical Teachings
Step 4. Examination of Historical Treatments
Step 5. Consultation of Other Cultural Perspectives
Step 6. Identification of the Essence of the Doctrine
Step 7. Illumination from Extrabiblical Sources
Step 8. Contemporary Expression of the Doctrine
Step 9. Development of a Central Interpretive Motif
Step 10. Stratification of the Topics[9]
We are calling this the traditional approach in doing theology from above, which starts God's revelation. The theologians develop each Christian doctrine's essential definition and meaning by interpreting the Biblical material and dialoguing with contemporary culture and church traditions. This process of developing theology can be represented by diagram A.
Diagram A demonstrates this traditional approach, a way that has quite a few advantages. It is, for example, systematic. Starting with the Bible and proceeding to doctrine, all doctrinal formulations can be constructed or taught in these steps. Teaching and learning theology logically and in an organized way can help students grasp each theological theme's doctrinal content. Therefore, this approach is often used in systematic theology textbooks in seminary classes. This approach can cover almost all of the significant theological topics: [10]
The Doctrine of the Word of God (God's Revelation)
The Doctrine of God (God's Attributes)
The Doctrine of Man (Anthropology)
The Doctrine of Christ and the Holy Spirit (Christology & Pneumatology)
The Doctrine of the Application of Redemption (Soteriology)
The Doctrine of the Church (Ecclesiology)
The Doctrine of the Future (Eschatology)[11]
Since this classical approach can cover all major theological topics, seminaries can use this approach to teach what Christians believe systematically. It is notably suitable for classroom education.
This approach of doing theology from above, however, is not the only way of doing theology and quite possibly not the best. Although, as we will see, doing theology from below, which means starting from real-life situations in the workplace, in ministry, or in the family, requires that we also have a theology from above through which we will reflect on the case. But let me explain why we need both. First, this approach, that is, from above, is rational and logical—relying heavily on the intellectual capacity of an individual. This intellectual capacity is closely related to Western philosophy. It belongs to a top-down linear thinking pattern rather than a concentric upward spiral. Asian theologian Simon Chan states that Western thought is linear, while Eastern thought is non-linear.[12] In the Western way of learning theology, a student in effect must go through the baptism of Western philosophy before he or she understands God’s purposes for the world, the church, and the human person. Hopefully, that person comes to know God.
Second, this approach can be highly academic and knowledge-based, so someone might stop at the exegetical debate without going down to the life application. As Volf confesses, we theologians sometimes do teach and write as if we have made a studied effort to avoid contact with the "impurities" of human lives.[13] In the seminary classroom, the application part is often ignored. It is the student's responsibility to apply what they have learned to their life. This approach creates a tendency to disintegrate the Christian faith and life. It may have to do with the dualistic nature of the Western philosophical tradition that compartmentalizes human life and belief. Often, theologians have done theology as if it were a strictly theoretical science, thus contributing to a sense that theology is unrelated to "real" life.[14] Theological educators need only look at their graduates, the churches, or their denominations for evidence of such fragmentation.[15]
Finally, if a seminary student studies theology (systematic theology), he/she should become someone who knows God and treats others well. However, after completing a few semesters of systematic theology courses, why must a student take Christian ethics (how to relate to others) and spiritual theology (how to relate to God)? Therefore, a group of seminary professors came together to discuss how theological education could equip students to connect what they learn in school with real-life issues and make theologically informed decisions in ministry. These seminary professors have edited a book, entitled, Integrating Work in Theological Education. One of the editors states that the lack of integration in theological education and ministerial practice comes at a high price. It reverberates through the personal, ecclesial, and systemic messes we see every day in the church.[16] Is there a way to do theology that will integrate the faith and life? To that subject, we must now turn.
What is Doing Theology “From Below"?
Instead of taking a top-down approach to doing theology from above, there is another approach to constructing theology: the bottom-up approach which starts with life. However, there are misunderstandings on theology from below. Since this approach does not begin with God's revelation, indeed with the contextual situation, people might associate this approach with another branch of theology called natural theology. Natural theology is an approach to gaining knowledge of God based on God's objective revelation, such as nature, history, and human reason. In other words, doing theology from below is sometimes confused with developing a natural theology without the Bible.[17] But theology from below is not about doing theology without the Bible; this approach begins with the ordinary life issue as a starting point for a theological and biblical reflection.
The book Pub Theology: Where Potato Wedges and a Beer Are a Eucharistic Experience is a recent example of this approach.[18] The authors took over a pub in Australia Friday evenings and had many of their friends tell their stories, reflecting biblically and theologically on their journeys: immigrants, health workers, real estate brokers and so on. In this book, Irene Alexander and Charles Ringma define theology in the pub as a "lay" theology—grassroots and bottom-up. Theology is usually professional and top-down. In contrast, this theology has the ordinary person of faith talking about what sense they have made about important dimensions of life in the light of their religious and biblical values.[19] Indeed, theology in the pub is free-flowing theology. There are no ideological constraints put on the speakers. This theology has, the authors suggest, the character of testimony.[20] Their story is the starting point in finding the theological meaning of life. Alexander and Ringma also add that pub theology is more dialectical. The speakers do not present some tidy theological system. Instead, they speak of wrestling with issues as they deal with ambiguity. Theirs is a theology "on the road," rather than a theology of destination.[21]
In a sense, the biblical book of Ecclesiastes is theology “on the road.” It is full of theological reflection on the meaning of life, on the actual experiences of the “professor” who researches wisdom, pleasure, work, money, and religion both “under the sun,” a code word for viewing life from a strictly secular perspective, and “under heaven” regarding life experiences from a belief in a transcendent God. It is possible that the author is reflecting on his own experience and not just relating to a secularist inquirer beside him. As such, and for the author of Ecclesiastes, and for us, doing theology from below is a never-ending process. As we journey through our lives, we encounter different struggles and issues, which are the starting point of our theological journey. Even if we encounter the same issue repeatedly, the approach of doing theology from below invites us into a theological hermeneutic spiral in which we can get to know God deeper and deeper. This theological hermeneutic spiral of doing theology from below can be represented in diagram B below.
Diagram B describes the process of doing theology from below. The anthropological starting point leads theologians to look first at the Christian faith in the context of human living and then to ascertain the meaning of God's message to the world.[22] The dilemma will motivate the participant to inquire what God says on an issue, beginning with one issue. When the participant thinks through this one issue in what can be called a hermeneutic spiral the participant will finally come up with a theologically informed decision or application. By completing the hermeneutic spiral on different issues in life, the participant will develop a down-to-earth theology that holistically integrates our Christian faith and everyday living. As Volf argues, Christian beliefs do not express "pure knowledge" but are intended to guide Christian practices by situating the practitioner within the overarching narrative of God's dealings with humanity and by offering an account of his or her constitution as an agent.[23]
But in order to do theology from below, a biblical theological inquiry of what God says on a specific issue, the participant needs a biblical theology that unifies what Volf called "the overarching narrative of God," truly a biblical theology of the whole Bible. Some biblical scholars use the salvation-historical approach. James Hamilton tried to look at the entire Scripture with a historical salvation overarching structure on the question of work: Creation, Fall, Redemption, and Consummation.
(1) God's design for work in the perfect creation before sin. From there, we will move to consider (2) what work looks like in a fallen world, (3) what work should be in the kingdom that the Lord Christ has inaugurated, and finally, (4) what the Bible indicates about work in the new heaven and the new earth the Lord Jesus will bring.[24]
Unfortunately, this author contributed to biblical theology with only descriptive systematic teaching, which fails to provide prescriptive and practical advice for Christians struggling in real life. However, some Christian business professionals including the lawyer Millie Chan who authored the “from above” section of Volume two of Working Blessedly Forever, have used this overarching grand narrative of the Bible to construct a theology of work.[25] This user-friendly narrative provides a biblical framework in theological reflection from below. In other words, doing theology from below requires a theology from above! Here is a brief summary of how biblical theology can be employed to reflect on an issue:
Creation - In the light of God's creation narrative, what value does the creational acts of God give to the issue? In the light of God's creation act, does God affirm or not affirm the action to be taken in the issues?
Sin - If God affirms the action to be taken for the issues, how does the fall of humanity affect the way we judge or weigh the issue? Does the sinful nature of humanity change the way we see the issue?
Redemption - The sinful nature of humanity puts negative value on the issue, Jesus comes to save and redeem not just humanity but also the entire universe. What value does the redemptive act of Jesus tell us about the issue? What role shall we play in the redemptive action of God toward the whole creation? What is our unique calling in this issue?
Consummation - We live in a fallen world, but someday, the final consummation of God's kingdom will come to this earth. God will restore the whole creation. What hope does the new heaven and earth give us when we face the issue today? How does this hope give us the strength to move forward? As illustrated in Diagram C, we will use the overarching Biblical theology structure as the fundamental resource for Christians to do the case-study reflection. In my opinion no methodology for doing theology from below is as helpful as the case study method.
This chart will help the participants identify the significant issues of the case and guide them to reflect on the significant issues from the perspective of biblical theology (Creation, The Fall, Redemption, and Consummation).
The Case Study Method for Doing Theology from Below
The “cases” that we studying are life experiences.[27] They are stories, and story is the primary way in which the revelation of God is given to us. Eugene Peterson has said that the Holy Spirit's literary genre of choice is story.[28] There seems to be magical power in a story that captures our imagination. In oral societies, stories are a key strategy for communicating culture and truth. The power of story for effective learning has been seen in the growing use of problem-based learning as an educational strategy.[29] Recognizing the social aspects of the story, then, case studies are best done with another person or in a small group. To better understand the power of the case study method, let us look at one together. The names and details have been changed, but this story is drawn from a real situation.
A Sample Case: A Higher Call?
“I'm counting on you, Murray, to set Robert straight and get him to accept his share of the company loan. I know he feels called to the mission field but that does not absolve him from his responsibility to me.” As Murray listened to these words from Bill, he recalled how deeply he cared for both Bill and Robert and how concerned he was that God's call not divide these brothers. “Robert and I are business partners,” Bill continued, “and we started this business feeling that God had called us to a ministry together. I know Robert has arranged to see you later this morning and I thought I should see you first. You are a friend to both of us and an elder of our church.” Minutes after Bill left, Robert arrived. Murray wondered how so much could happen in a few days and why he felt caught in the middle.
Two weeks before in their regular time of discipleship, Robert had dropped the bombshell to Murray: “At the mission conference I got the call—just as clear as my wife's voice—indeed she heard the call too. We are both absolutely convinced that God is calling us to the mission field to do student work in Zambia. For too long I have been doing work that will not last. Now I want to see some eternal souls saved and to contribute to heaven.” Robert had arrived today to continue the conversation. “My wife and I,” Robert continued, “were hoping the church would send us out and undertake a large part of our monthly support. We also would like you to prayerfully consider becoming one of our prayer and support partners. The needs are tremendous.”
As Murray listened to Robert’s passionate conviction about this new call, he remembered the beginning of the brothers’ business partnership three years ago, when their high-tech assembly operation, which now employed 25 people, was securing startup financing. Bill, who was much older than Robert, was the major shareholder and had guaranteed 75% of the company loan with his personal residence. Against Murray's advice, Bill had not insisted that Robert sign a guarantee for his 25% share of the company loan. So legally, Robert could walk away from it—something he felt justified in doing in view of having now a higher call on his life.
As Robert and Murray’s conversation continued, Murray found the right time to ask, “How are you planning to repay your part of the business loan?”
“We were hoping Bill would take it on,” Robert replied, “he's so much better established than we are and is well able to do it. This business is like a hobby to him.”
“Have you considered selling your house?”
“We thought we should keep it and rent it so we have something to come back to.”
“And what about the business?”
“I had hoped that it would yield enough to allow me to retire early and do something in the Lord's work—but it's been sheer survival and doesn't look like it will improve.”
“Did you know that Bill was just here?”
“No! What did he say?”
“He said that you have 'peace' about all this and he has the 'pieces' to be picked up!”
“This isn’t the kind of response I was expecting,” Robert commented as he left the home.
Moments later the telephone rang. It was Bill asking Murray to set up a meeting with the elders with both of them to resolve the issue once and for all.
The Steps in Unpacking a Case Theologically
The first step in a case study is to consider all the issues that arise from the story; from that broad assessment, one can then find clarity on what the core issues are. Once the core issues are identified, one can approach those issues through Biblical and theological study and reflection in order to arrive at options for addressing the issue, including utilizing specific tools and resources.
Let’s walk through these steps, using the story of Murray, Bill, and Robert as our case.
First, Identifying the issues
When we brainstormed the issues related to this story, here are some that were named.
· Is it ethical for Robert to leave the business on such short notice?
· Is it fair for Bill to shoulder the entire loan burden?
· There is a lack of clear communication between the partners.
· There's a tension between religious beliefs and ethical obligations.
· Robert has a dualistic worldview that exclusively values religious work.
· Does the calling to be a missionary hold greater value than the calling to be a businessperson?
· Is the mission field exclusively limited to cross-cultural and overseas evangelistic endeavors?
Spend some time considering the story yourself. Are there issues within the conflict that are missing from this list above?
Second, identifying the core issues
Our next step is to narrow down our study to what we understand are the main issues. You might do this by finding connections between the issues we’ve brainstormed, determining which issues would help to resolve other issues, or by urgency and emotional impact.
Here are the two we named:
· Though Robert is legally not obligated to pay off the loan, there is still an ethical (not to mention relational) question of how Robert should honor his responsibilities to his Christian brother and the business.
· A dualistic worldview has caused Robert to prioritize what he sees as a “religious calling” over both his work in the business and over his financial responsibilities as a business partner.
Third, we can ask whether there is scriptural teaching that addresses these issues in a specific way. A biblical story might also be drawn upon at this stage.
Having identified the core issues as ethical obligations and a dualistic worldview, we consider whether Scripture speaks to these directly. We arrived at three biblical passages we felt were relevant:
1. Colossians 3:23-24: “Whatever you do, work at it with all your heart, as working for the Lord, not for human masters, since you know that you will receive an inheritance from the Lord as a reward. It is the Lord Christ you are serving.” These verses highlight the importance of working diligently and with integrity in all aspects of life.
2. Matthew 6:3-4: “But when you give to the needy, do not let your left hand know what your right hand is doing, so that your giving may be in secret. Then your Father, who sees what is done in secret, will reward you.” This verse affirms that even activities considered “non-religious” can be part of God’s mission.
3. 1 Peter 2:9: “But you are a chosen people, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, God's special possession, that you may declare the praises of him who called you out of darkness into his wonderful light.” This verse says that all believers have a priestly role. Therefore from a Divine perspective, the calls to missionary service and to a commercial endeavor both have unique value in the divine economy.
Fourth, we consult biblical theology
Frankly, doing theology from below assumes a theology from above. Possibly the best theology from above that Millie Chan uses in Volume 2 of Working Blessedly Forever is a biblical theology. Let me review some of the sources of a biblical theology.
In his book “God’s Design: A Focus on Old Testament Theology,” Elmer A. Martens conducts an exegesis of Exodus 5:22-6:8, unveiling God’s blueprint for establishing the kingdom, comprising four key components: Deliverance, Community, Knowledge of God, and The Abundant Life.[30] Through this exegetical and thematic methodology, Martens enables Christians to home in on potential central themes. Walter C. Kaiser Jr. also develops a biblical theology on the theme of God’s promise. He believes
The best proposal for such a unity is to be found exactly where Scripture itself pointed in its repeated references. I believe that the most suitable candidate for the unity or center of God's disclosure is to be found in the "promise-plan" of God as revealed in repeated references throughout Scripture.[31]
G.K. Beale undertakes an analysis of the intertextuality between the Old and New Testaments to construct a New Testament biblical theology. This approach reveals a cohesive narrative thread spanning from the Old Testament to the New Testament. Beale posits that this narrative centers on the development of an “eschatological already-not yet new-creational reign”[32] through Jesus’s life, trials, death for the sinners, and resurrection by the Spirit.
Many of the more recent forms of biblical theology recognize the Kingdom of God as one of the major themes, emphasizing its realization as a cohesive process. Bruce K. Waltke concludes that “the holy and merciful God continually irrupts into history to establish his kingdom for the hallowing of his name. The New Testament continues this history of God's saving work for humanity.”[33]
In his book “Old Testament Theology – From Creation to New Creation,”[34] Chinese biblical scholar Wong Yee-cheug aids Christians in grasping the purpose inherent in history. He elucidates that God's ultimate intention for his creation is renewal. From the Genesis account of creation to its culmination in the new heaven and new earth depicted in Revelation, Wong asserts that “with the emergence of the new heaven and earth, God’s work of restoration has also been completed. Hallelujah!”[35]
Meanwhile, some biblical scholars adopt a simplified salvation-historical approach in crafting a biblical theology. For instance, James M. Hamilton structures his theology of work around Creation, Fall, Redemption, and Consummation as overarching themes.
(1)God's design for work in the perfect creation before sin. From there, we will move to consider (2) what work looks like in a fallen world, (3) what work should be in the kingdom that the Lord Christ has inaugurated, and finally, (4) what the Bible indicates about work in the new heaven and the new earth the Lord Jesus will bring.[36]
Let’s now apply some of the themes of biblical theology to our case
Creation: In the divine order of creation, a holistic perspective encompasses both the so-called sacred and secular realms without imposing hierarchical distinctions. Anchored in the genesis of creation, the calling to business carries equal sanctity to that of missionary endeavors. The mandate of creation underscores the intrinsic value of all noble pursuits within God's overarching mission to bless the entire cosmos, thereby summoning all individuals to partake in fulfilling his divine purpose. Their business is within God’s purpose for humankind.
The Fall: Following humanity's fall, a pervasive dualistic division tainted creation. Adam and Eve, emblematic of humanity, found themselves estranged from God, leading to a fractured relationship. This estrangement extends to humanity's struggle with the earth and within themselves, as the fallen worldview dichotomizes the physical realm as valueless and the spiritual realm as possessing inherent worth. Robert needs to see that he is already doing God’s work, though he may well be called or led by God to pursue overseas service.
Redemption: The redemptive mission of Jesus Christ extends beyond mere salvation of the soul; it heralds the reconciliation of the fractured worldview, uniting heaven and earth in the person of Christ Jesus, as elucidated by N. T. Wright. Consequently, adherents of Jesus are tasked with redeeming the workplace and its culture, which have been marred by the curse outlined in Genesis three. That redemptive dimension of work can be undertaken if Robert stays in the business or if he goes to Zambia.
Consummation: The culmination of creation and redemption finds expression in the emergence of a new heaven and new earth, wherein dualism ceases to exist. Christian faith and human endeavor converge seamlessly. In the ultimate fulfillment of human history, the new creation shall mirror the pristine beauty of the Garden of Eden, where every pursuit becomes an act of worship and service unto God. The pull of the new heaven and new earth can be experienced both by staying in business or by becoming a missionary.
Fifth, Options, and Resources
Here are some refined thoughts for consideration in this case. The ethical dilemmas revolve around Robert's choice to prioritize his religious vocation over his financial obligations as a business partner, potentially disadvantaging Bill. While Robert appears to have only two apparent options – pursuing missionary work at the expense of Bill or remaining in the business at the expense of his sense of calling – perhaps there exists a more innovative solution.
Regarding the ethics of the potential dissolution of the partnership, Robert should initiate open communication with Bill, seeking integrity in both the holding and being released of his responsibilities. At the same time, Robert should engage in a thorough examination of his calling, to ensure that the call he senses to the foreign mission work is not influenced by a misguided theology of work.
Accepting these next steps, Robert can look for tools and resources that address specific questions that arise as he walks forward faithfully. For example, on the question of vocational discernment, he might look at books authored by Gordon T. Smith,[37] R. Paul Stevens,[38] and Steven Garber.[39]. Additionally, Robert could attend vocational discernment seminars, such as the Vocational Discernment Mini-Course offered by the Institute for Marketplace Transformation.
Conclusion
Ernst Wendland points out the advantages of the kind of study we have just engaged in. “During the case study discussion, the total psychological involvement and self-identification of the hearer (student or worker) is obvious.”[40] This resonates with Kim's observation that “Narrative is one of the few human endeavors that is widely spread as a basic aspect of human life and an essential strategy of human expression.”[41] The case – that is, a narrative – is a powerful tool that involves the student's intellectual, emotional, and cultural judgments in the discussion.
In today's postmodern culture, engaging holistically is essential in theological teaching. Pastoral Theology from a Global Perspective: A Case Study Approach, argues that the case study creates a mutual learning community in which everyone will engage and learn from each other; rather than depend on a teacher or lecturer, the group looks to a facilitator. Speaking of the way they present pastoral theology in the book, the editors write, “These cases have helped and empowered the authors to understand the problems and the issues churches around the world confront in pastoral ministry.”[42] Henri Nouwen wrote, “for if education is meant to challenge the world, it is Christ Himself who challenges teachers as well as students to give up their defenses and to become available for real growth.”[43] In this condition, the classroom, the small group in business or the church will be transformed from a hierarchical top-down information transfer into a space for mutual edification and growth.
Footnotes:
[1] Paul R. Stevens, Marketplace Theology Volume 1: Working Blessedly Forever: The Shape of Marketplace Theology, (Eugene, Oregon: Wipf & Stock, 2023), Introduction.
[2] Yu Cavin, 極端仁慈的上帝 = The God of extreme mercy, Di 1 ban (Xianggang: 福音证主协会, 2015), 7.
[3] James I. Packer, The Collected Shorter Writings of J. I. Packer. 1: Celebrating the Saving Work of God, 1. publ (Carlisle: Paternoster Press, 1998), 314.
[4] Simon Chan, Grassroots Asian Theology: Thinking the Faith from the Ground Up (Downers Grove, Illinois: InterVarsity Press, 2014), 9.
[5] Chan, Grassroots Christian Theology, 9.
[6] Alister E. McGrath, Christian Theology: An Introduction (Oxford, UK ; Cambridge, Mass., USA: Blackwell, 1994), 151.
[7] These three theologians comprise three resources for doing theology from above. McGrath, 151; Stanley J. Grenz, Theology for the Community of God (Nashville, Tenn: Broadman & Holman, 1994), 21–24; Wayne A. Grudem, Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine (Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 1994), 25.
[8] Millard J. Erickson, Christian Theology, 2nd ed (Grand Rapids, Mich: Baker Book House, 1998), 23.
[9] Erickson, Christian Theology, 70–84. For explanation of each of the steps are spelled out in details in these pages.
[10] Louis Berkhof, Systematic Theology, new ed., containing the full text of Systematic Theology and the original Introductory Volume to Systematic Theology; with a new preface (Grand Rapids, Mich: Eerdmans, 2004); Erickson, Christian Theology; Grenz, Theology for the Community of God; Grudem, Systematic Theology; McGrath, Christian Theology. See the table of contents of each textbook. These textbooks cover all of the major theological topics in Christian theology.
[11] Grudem, Systematic Theology, 25.
[12] Chan, Grassroots Asian Theology, 9.
[13] Miroslav Volf and Dorothy C. Bass, eds., Practicing Theology: Beliefs and Practices in Christian Life (Grand Rapids, Mich: W.B. Eerdmans, 2002), 245.
[14] Volf and Bass, Practicing Theology, 247.
[15] Kathleen A. Cahalan, Edward Foley, and Gordon S. Mikoski, eds., Integrating Work in Theological Education (Eugene, OR: Pickwick Publications, 2017), 2.
[16] Cahalan, Foley, and Mikoski, eds., Integrating Work in Theological Education, 2.
[17] Erickson, Christian Theology, 180–81.
[18] Irene Alexander and Charles Ringma, eds., Pub Theology: Where Potato Wedges and a Beer Are a Eucharistic Experience (Great Britain: Piquant Editions, 2021).
[19] Alexander and Ringma, Pub Theology, 2.
[20] Alexander and Ringma, Pub Theology, 2.
[21] Alexander and Ringma, Pub Theology, 2.
[22] Howard W. Stone and James O. Duke, How to Think Theologically, 2nd. ed (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2006), 60.
[23] Volf and Bass, Practicing Theology, 255.
[24] James M. Hamilton, Work and Our Labor in the Lord: Short Studies in Biblical Theology Series (Wheaton, Illinois: Crossway, 2017), 12.
[25] R. Paul Stevens and Lucas Lee, eds., Working Blessedly Forever, Volume Two: The Practice of Marketplace Theology (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, forthcoming). See also Jeffrey B. Van Duzer, Why Business Matters to God: (And What Still Needs to Be Fixed) (Downers Grove, Ill.: IVP Academic, 2010), 18.
[26] This chart is adapted from one created by R. Paul Stevens in 2016.
[27] Patricia O’Connell Killen and John De Beer, The Art of Theological Reflection (New York: Crossroad, 1994), 1.
[28] Eugene H. Peterson, Leap Over a Wall: Earthy Spirituality for Everyday Christians, 1st HarperCollins Paperback Edition (New York: HarperCollins, 1998), 3.
[29] Perry Shaw, Transforming Theological Education: A Practical Handbook for Integrative Learning. (United States: Langham Creative Projects : Made available through hoopla, 2014), 277.
[30] Elmer A. Martens, God’s Design: A Focus on Old Testament Theology, 2nd. ed., 1. paperback ed (Grand Rapids, Mich: Baker Books, 1996), 24–25.
[31] Walter C. Kaiser, The Promise-Plan of God: A Biblical Theology of the Old and New Testaments (Grand Rapids, Mich: Zondervan, 2008), 18.
[32] G. K. Beale, A New Testament Biblical Theology: The Unfolding of the Old Testament in the New (Grand Rapids, Mich: Baker Academic, 2011), 16.
[33] Bruce K. Waltke, An Old Testament Theology: An Exegetical, Canonical, and Thematic Approach, 1st ed (Grand Rapids, Mich: Zondervan, 2007), 167.
[34] Yee-cheung Wong 黃儀章., Old Testament Theology - From Creation to New Creation舊約神學: 從創造到新創造, (Xianggang: 天道書樓有限公司, 2003).
[35] Wong, Old Testament Theology, 423.
[36] Hamilton, Work and Our Labor in the Lord, 12.
[37] Gordon T. Smith, Consider Your Calling: Six Questions for Discerning Your Vocation (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2016).
[38] R. Paul Stevens, Playing Heaven: Rediscovering Our Purpose as Participants in the Mission of God (Vancouver: Regent College Pub., 2006).
[39] Steven Garber, Visions of Vocation (Downers Grove, InterVarsity Press, 2014).
[40] Ernst R. Wendland, “The Case for a ‘Case-Study’ Approach to Theological Education in Africa,” Africa Journal of Evangelical Theology 17.1 (1998): 45.
[41] Jeong-Hee Kim, Understanding Narrative Inquiry: The Crafting and Analysis of Stories as Research (Los Angeles: SAGE, 2016), 6.
[42] Henry S. Wilson, Judo Poerwowidagdo, Takatso Mofokeng, Robert A. Evans, and Alice Frazer Evans, Pastoral Theology from a Global Perspective: A Case Study Approach (Eugene, Or.: Wipf & Stock, 2005), 6.
[43] Henri J. Nouwen, Creative Ministry (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1978), 20.
