Dualism of Body & Soul: The Effect on a Biblical Theology of Work
Introduction: Dualism in the Church
The church has long understood a theology of work as central to participating in the Kingdom. Through work, humans have an opportunity to express both their mission and vocation. From the Cultural Mandate that humanity is given in Genesis 1:28, to the Great Commission of Matthew 28:18-20, to the eschatology that Scripture reveals, work has great prominence throughout the Christian story. Through work, humanity demonstrates their values, beliefs, hopes, and identity. However, Christian theology has often been plagued by creeping dualism. The Greek world, in which modern philosophy and theology find many of their roots, sought to separate the spiritual and physical realms as distinct entities. This separation often led to a hierarchical approach to life that elevated the immaterial at the expense of the material. The understanding of work has not been impervious to the tendency towards dualism. However, a biblical theology of work should seek to remove cultural impositions that alter the meaning of the text radically. To do so presents a richer and more Christological understanding of work that retains congruence with the Biblical story.
Throughout the development of Christian orthodoxy and orthopraxy, the church has continually battled with a tendency towards dualism. Christian dualism derives from a persuasion that created matter is distinct from and inferior to spiritual things. Gnosticism, originating in the first century, posited that there were "two gods: a supreme god, who was the source of the invisible spiritual world, and a lesser deity who created the world of visible, material things."[1] The next significant example of dualism was seen in the rise of Manicheism. This third-century heresy placed a spiritual world of light in opposition to a dark world of material things. Eusebius wrote in the fourth century that Christians were to have two ways of life. "The one is above nature, and beyond common human living… And the other more humble, more human."[2] Dualism was not merely a problem of the first several centuries. It was prominent in the Middle Ages, through proponents such as "Cathari and Albigenses, who taught that matter is evil and was created ex nihilo ("from nothing") by the devil."[3] Dualism was countered by theologians such as Augustine of Hippo and Irenaeus of Lyons, among many others. It was explicitly opposed by the Council of Nicea, Synod of Toledo and the Fourth Lateran Council. Despite ecclesial condemnation as heresy, dualism continues to plague many aspects of Christian belief and practice.
The Impact of Dualism on Work
The impact that dualism has on work is particularly significant, given that work occurs on earth utilizing the created order. The mission of humanity to "Be fruitful and increase in number; fill the earth and subdue it"[4] is denigrated when the goodness of creation is called into question. In the case of Gnosticism, matter is created by a lesser god, and, in the case of Manicheism, it is created by an evil being. Human work within the created order, therefore, can be at best a lesser good, and at worst, inherently evil. However, close inspection of the Bible reveals that God holds the material things he created in high esteem. He does not seek to diminish their value. As Sherman rightly points out, God repeats the Cultural Mandate in Genesis 2:15, emphasizing its importance only a chapter after initially giving it.[5] Even after the fall, the Cultural Mandate is not taken away, nor is humanity's power to enact it.[6]
The Cultural Mandate on Work
The Cultural Mandate of Genesis continues to be seen throughout the Bible, and humanity's obligation to tend to creation is certainly not taken away. Importantly, the Cultural Mandate to work by tending to the land is given before the fall of Genesis 3, indicating that work is part of God's very good creation. Having revealed "work as part of human ontology"[7] in the opening chapters, the Bible continues to tell stories of well-directed and misdirected work. Indeed, one could frame the Biblical text as rhythms of characters showing the potential to fulfill the Creation Mandate before falling short. As humanity multiplied in Genesis, they sought to build a tower to the heavens in Genesis 11. The narrative focuses on the details of their work, telling readers that "They used brick instead of stone, and tar for mortar."[8] However, their preoccupation with the heavens, and perhaps escaping the created world, is thwarted by God. Where the people of Babel sought to transcend their human limits and the limits of the earth, God re-established the order between heaven and earth, humankind and creation.[9]
No matter how often humans fail to live up to their calling, the Bible teaches continuity of the mandate through all generations. In revealing human ontology and mission, the creation story shows "that work is the natural exercise and function of man – the creature who is made in the image of his Creator."[10] This work occurs in the material realm through the efforts of an intertwined body and soul. Despite this, the Biblical characters often sought to make themselves gods, attempting to escape their ontological calling and the created order. Instead of celebrating the dualism demonstrated by these actions, the Bible continually reminds God's people of their place and mission. Christians are reminded that they are inseparably body and soul, and both are called to be put to work. They are brought back to the truth that the created order, body and soul together is "very good."[11]
The Implications of Incarnation on Work
With the Incarnation came a new covenant for the people of God and the announcement of the Great Commission. However, the Great Commission did not represent a spiritual replacement of the grounded Cultural Mandate. Instead, the Commission presented a means for the mandate's fulfillment.[12] Jesus, simultaneously both God and a carpenter or mason, is what the Bible builds towards. He is a person capable of fulfilling his calling without falling short. The Incarnation is God's great endorsement of matter and the capacity for creation's renewal. Jesus announces the Kingdom of God has arrived, but its arrival is marked by God taking physical form and coming to earth. The Incarnation is the final word against dualism.
For centuries after his resurrection, Christ's nature was deliberated over and debated by the church. Perhaps the most definitive statement on that topic is the confession of Christological orthodoxy produced by the Council of Chalcedon in 451. It states, Christ is "to be acknowledged in two natures, inconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably; the distinction of natures being by no means taken away by the union, but rather the property of each nature being preserved, and concurring in one Person and one Subsistence."[13] If Christ cannot be broken into body and soul, it is improper to separate Christ from His work. Christ is soul, body, miracle worker, forgiver of sins and carpenter. These are simply different aspects of the one being. If Christ cannot be separated into dual components, similarly those who were created in His image and called to follow His example cannot be either. Image-bearers' work also cannot be neatly separated into spiritual and material.
The Implications of Embodied Eschatology on Work
One of the most important repudiations of the dualism of body and soul is a fully developed Christian eschatology. Indeed, Volf suggests that a theology of work develops from "an all-encompassing eschatology."[14] A misunderstanding that God's creation is destined for destruction has deep roots in a dualistic worldview. Ultimately, the "question of continuity or discontinuity between the present and future orders is a key issue in developing a theology of work. The ultimate significance of human work depends on the answer to this question."[15] Volf goes on to outline that the Christian belief in the new creation is not a discontinuity between the present and future orders but the redemption of all the earth.[16] Congar similarly suggests that "Ontologically, this is the world that, transformed and renewed will pass into the kingdom; so...the dualist position is wrong; final salvation will be achieved by a wonderful refloating of our earthly vessel rather than the transfer of the survivors to another ship wholly built by God."[17]
If creation's ultimate goal is to be transformed and renewed, it follows that the same will be true for the body and for products of work. Humans are not merely embodied souls, waiting to escape the curse of physicality. Such a misunderstanding has led to the denigration of the body and any work that the body produces in the present. However, Christ presents an embodied eschatology. The Christian is promised a redeemed body, not a disembodied eternity. Eschatology has often been construed as offering a final separation of body from soul; however, the Bible promises no such thing. Wright reveals that in contrast to conventional Greco-Roman wisdom, for early Christians, "the new embodied life is to be looked forward to and celebrated."[18] If both creation and body are destined for eschatologically renewal, the implications for work are significant. It is not simply the metaphysical work that human souls perform in the present that has eschatological value. Physical work, too, is infused with eschatological significance. In not allowing a syncretistic incorporation of Platonic dualism into its theology, the Bible also does not allow for a dualism of spiritual and physical work.
Platonic Dualism and Misunderstanding of Work as Hierarchy
Platonic dualism has contributed to the perception of a hierarchy of work that elevates those things that are not material or represent disembodied ideas. This hierarchy is perhaps best described by Bakke. "Priority one, of course, was to be a missionary to Africa; second, a pastor; third—if you could do neither of those—work for a Christian organization or school; fourth, some kind of service profession such as doctor, social worker, or advocate. If, however, you weren't spiritual or gifted enough, you could go into business to support those at the top of God's pyramid."[19] The work of saving souls was seen as primary. This was followed by any work that assisted the body, the vehicle of the soul. Finally, any work that figured primarily with material creation was seen of lesser value, only of worth insofar as it allows a contribution to the spiritual work of soul-saving. It also created a dualistic approach to work. Christian work had an end in itself, the saving of souls. Secular work was any work that did not have soul-saving as its primary aim. Instead, this work operated as a means to an end, with the ultimate goal of contributing to those performing 'Christian' work.
However, the Bible does not support a hierarchy of work built upon a dualistic perception of the world. This appears to be a syncretistic addition to Christianity with no biblical foundation. Indeed, a biblical theology of work gives remarkable dignity to work done in the material realm. As Bakke reveals, the majority of work carried out by Biblical heroes would be considered secular under this model.[20] Noah was called to build a ship and care for animals, Abraham developed land, Daniel was a scholar, David a shepherd and then a king amid many more examples. In the New Testament, the narrative turns as God takes on material form and walks the earth once again. Jesus surrounded himself with a motley group of disciples, including fishermen, a tax collector and a zealot. He preached and spoke parables about work. Importantly he spent the majority of his life working with his hands. The Bible does not speak negatively about these aspects of Jesus, his followers, or the heroes who went before him. Their work is part of their good calling and has value; it reflects their image-bearing vocation.
Paul, for example, did not understand his calling to preach the gospel and to build tents as entirely separate. Fee writes that "Paul spread the gospel here in the workplace as a tentmaker."[21] The workplace was not simply an opportunity to preach but a place to live out and demonstrate a holistic understanding of calling. Paul ministered in his preaching and by making tents, in word and action, through body and soul. This was all ministry and is why he boasted of working with his hands in Acts 20:33, 1 Corinthians 4:12, 2 Thessalonians 3:8. Paul implores the churches to work, writing that "The one who is unwilling to work shall not eat."[22] This theology of work was one that afforded manual work incredible dignity and was radically counter-cultural. Culture taught that manual labour was "slavish and demeaning,"[23] Christians taught that it had value and willingly chose to participate in it.
Work in Good Creation
This radical understanding of the value of work was borne out of the theology of the goodness of creation. Work was given to humanity as their mission and identity in the very good creation. In the fall of Genesis 3, "there is no suggestion in this text of work itself being a curse. But it clearly says that, as a consequence of the curse against the ground, work has assumed the character of toil."[24] The Biblical narrative understands work as a positive attribute of human anthropology. By understanding the Cultural Mandate as a universal calling, work finds significant value in the Biblical creation account. "If work was conceived as a calling, a vocation coming from God, the Bible would have accorded it an importance that it may not have had culturally."[25] This calling to work was not given to disembodied souls but those made from the dust of the ground.
The Role of the Spirit in Empowering Humanity for Work and Vocation
The Bible clearly teaches an integrated body and soul without hierarchy. Therefore, "We have to maintain not merely that human beings have bodies, but that they are bodies (though, of course, not reducing them to bodies)."[26] The Bible expounds that each person has a calling, or vocation, and that this is lived out in the material creation. Work and matter are not a curse but are affected by the curse, as is the soul. God's Kingdom is at work to redeem the body, the soul, work and creation. The greatest dignity that work is given is the opportunity to partner with Christ in His Kingdom work. A Biblical theology of work recognizes that "The Christian solution, as we will see, is not to be extricated from the world or, as was suggested by Gnostics to get the spirit/soul out of the physical body, but to live in this world wholeheartedly, through the presentation of our bodily life to God."[27] The New Testament teaches that this wholehearted praxis occurs through pneumatology, the work of the Spirit. However, this is not duality in disguise. The Spirit is understood as empowering humanity for work on the earth in each person's and community's time and place. Therefore, the Spirit empowers humans to fulfil the command to work.[28] This empowering allows humanity to live up to their calling as Jesus did. The indwelling of the Spirit does not remove the importance of work in the world but gifts believers in such a way as to give deeper meaning to their work. The Spirit is how work is redeemed and returns to its creation status in the present as humanity awaits its full eschatological redemption.
Conclusion
A Biblical theology of work affords work remarkable dignity, a dignity it has rarely been given in any time or culture. The Bible does not promote a hierarchy of work or duality between body and soul. These ideas find their foundation in Platonic philosophy and Greek culture. Where these ideas have syncretized with Christianity, they have undermined the goodness of creation, the role of the Spirit and the eschatological promise of a new creation and body. However, the Cultural Mandate of creation, the Incarnation, the Great Commission lived out through the indwelling of the Holy Spirit, and an embodied eschatology remind the Christian of the Biblical value of work. Work in the world has anthropological and ontological value because of the goodness of creation and the promise that it will be redeemed. An integrated body and soul allow work to be an end in itself rather than a means to an end. A biblical theology of work reminds Christians of their mission, to partner their whole selves with God in His kingdom work of redeeming creation.
References:
[1] Alister E. McGrath, Christian Theology: An Introduction, 6th ed (Newark: Wiley-Blackwell, 2017), https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,shib&db=nlebk&AN=1336361&site=eds-live&custid=s2792727, 196.
[2] Eusebius, The Proof of the Gospel; Two Volumes in One: Two Volumes in One (Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2001), https://books.google.com.au/books?id=FJhKAwAAQBAJ, 48-49.
[3] Eusebius, The Proof of the Gospel, 197.
[4] Gen. 1:28 (NIV)
[5] Amy Sherman, Kingdom Calling: Vocational Stewardship for the Common Good (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Books, 2011), 136.
[6] Sherman, Kingdom Calling, 137.
[7] Elizabeth Ostring Be a Blessing: The Theology of Work in the Narrative of Genesis. (Wipf & Stock Publishers, 2016), 242.
[8] Gen. 11:3 (NIV)
[9] Jonathan Grossman, “The Double Etymology of Babel in Genesis 11,” Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 129, no. 3 (September 2017): 365.
[10] Dorothy Leigh Sayers, “Why Work?” (1942): 5-6.
[11] Gen. 1:31 (NIV)
[12] Paul Stevens, Abolition of the Laity: Vocation Work and Ministry in Biblical Perspective (London: Paternoster Press, 2000).
[13] Confession of Chalcedon, 451.
[14] Miroslav Volf, Work in the Spirit: Toward a Theology of Work (Eugene, Or.: Wipf and Stock, 2001), 85.
[15] Volf, Work in the Spirit, 89.
[16] Volf, Work in the Spirit, 79.
[17] Yves Congar, Lay People in the Church: A Study for a Theology of Laity (Westminster, MD: Newman Press, 1967), 92.
[18] N. T. Wright and Michael Bird, The New Testament in Its World, (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2019), chap. 12, https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,shib&db=nlebk&AN=2380174&site=eds-live&custid=s2792727.
[19] Dennis Bakke, “The Unspoken Vocational Hierarchy,” The Gospel Coalition, last modified March 31, 2016, accessed November 12, 2020, https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/article/the-unspoken-vocational-hierarchy/.
[20] I Dennis Bakke, “The Unspoken Vocational Hierarchy.”
[21] Gordon Fee, Jeffrey Greenman, and Paul Stevens, Offer Yourselves to God: Vocation, Work, and Ministry in Paul’s Epistles. (Cascade Books, 2019), 28.
[22] 2 Thes. 3:10 (NIV)
[23] Todd Still, “Did Paul Loathe Manual Labor? Revisiting the Work of Ronald F. Hock on the Apostle’s Tentmaking and Social Class,” Journal of Biblical Literature 125, no. 4 (2006): 782.
[24] Volf, Work in the Spirit, 128.
[25] Jacques Ellul, “Work and Calling,” in Callings!, ed. James Holloway and Will Campbell, Deus books (New York: Paulist Press, 1974), 20.
[26] Volf, Work in the Spirit, 143.
[27] Paul Stevens, Abolition of the Laity, 300.
[28] Volf, Work in the Spirit, 125.
